PEACEKEEPING IN AFRICA:A CASE STUDY ECOMOG INTERVENTION IN LIBERIA

ABSTRACT

Peacekeeping operations have assumed a centre stage in the operation of International Organization as a veritable instrument for maintaining International Peace and security. The United Nations and other regional and sub-regional organizations have adopted these measures in their efforts to secure peace in the major conflict states of the world. The Liberian crisis which is the subject of this study was one of such cases in which the measures was applied to maintain peace by the Economic Community of West Africa State (ECOWAS).

The Liberian crisis which started as an entirely ethnic conflict involving the indigenous ethnic Liberians who constitute the majority of the population and the Afro-America settlers who were settled in Liberia following the abolition of slave trade in America and who have dominated the political scene in the country since their arrival in 1821.

The Liberians crisis escalated in 1980 when Samuel Doe staged a coup that brought the ethnic majority of the Liberian to power. The conflict assumed a wider dimension following the involvement of other extraneous forces around Liberians, a situation which the ECOWAS leaders thought would lead to the war spreading to other countries in the sub-region.

This study examined the operations of the peacekeeping body- the ECOMOG which ECOWAS established for the purpose of securing peace in Liberia. For its explanatory tool, the study adopted the theory of collective Security. The choice of this theory is informed by the fact that it best explains the decision of ECOWAS as a sub-regional body to work for peace within the sub-region. The theory of collective security rest on the assumption that all nations share a primary interest in maintaining International Peace and Security.

This work is basically an analytical survey study and in the case it precludes all forms of statistical process in both data collection and analysis. In this regard, conflict analysis of the mass of data collection from library sources was adopted in the study. The major findings of the study include the fact that the domination of political power by the Afro-America Liberians is at the root of the conflict in the country.

The study also discovered that poor funding and the colonial orientations of the various forces contributing states in ECOWAS adversely affected the operation of ECOMOG in Liberia.

The study recommends that the Leaders of ECOWAS should establish more integrated peacekeeping forces with training in language and cultures of the Nations in the sub-region.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

9

Title page………………………………………………………………..i

Certification…………………………………………………………….ii

Approval page………………………………………………………….iii

Dedication………………………………………………………………iv

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………….v

Abstract…………………………………………………………………vi

Table of contents………………………………………………………ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….1

1.2 Statement of Problem………………………………………….5

1.3 Research Question…………………………………………….8

1.4 Objectives of the Study……………………………………….9

1.5 Significant of the Study……………………………………… 9

1.6 Literature Review……………………………………………10

1.7 Theoretical Framework………………………………………17

1.8 Research Hypotheses…………………………………………21

1.9 Research Methodology……………………………………….22

References……………………………………………………23

CHAPTER TWO

Historical background to The Liberian Crisis

2.1 The Liberian Crisis in Perspective………………………………28

References……………………………………………………….37

CHAPTER THREE

Historical Development of Peacekeeping Operations…………………38

3.1 Definition of Peacekeeping……………………………………..39

3.2 Evolution of the Peacekeeping Operations……………………..48

3.3 Creation of the United Nations Emergency Force……………..54

References……………………………………………………. .67

CHAPTER FOUR

Assessment of ECOMOG Peacekeeping Operations in Liberia………69

4.1 Problems of ECOMOG…………………………………………74

References………………………………………………………79

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary…………………………………………………………80
5.2 Conclusion……………………………………………………….83
5.3 Recommendations……………………………………………….85
Bibliography ……………………………………………………87

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Peacekeeping has its origin in the United Nations and since its inception; the United Nations has developed a number of instrument for controlling and resolving conflicts between and within states. The most crucial among them as in the Secretary General’s supplement to an agenda for peace is: peace building; disarmament; sanction; and peace enforcement.

The United Nations does not claim monopoly of these instruments. It is pertinent to state that in many instances, the instruments have been usefully employed by regional organizations, ad-hoc groups of the states or by individual states as is the case with ECOWAS, a regional organization that has ECOMOG as its harbinger in the West African sub-region. The comparative advantage which the United Nations has over regional bodies like ECOMOG is the tremendous wealth of experience in the use of these instrument and the legitimacy of their use, hence the international conflicts especially since the end of the cold war era. Furthermore, the United Nations system appears to be better equipped and financed than regional organizations or individual member states to develop and apply the comprehensive, long-term approach needed to ensure the lasting resolution of conflicts. Peace keeping, one of the best known United Nations instrument for the maintenance of peace and security requires the cooperation of the parties to conflict in question, while seeking to settle disputes through initiatives. Peacekeeping in the West – African sub-region especially in Liberia, was the idea of ECOWAS, which created ECOMOG to resolve the crisis in the war-torn Liberia and subsequently in the sub-region.

The political crisis in Liberia reached its apogee following the invasion of the Nimba country by Charles Talyor in December 1989 under the banner of National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL). By early 1990, the situation degenerated with rebel forces having reached Monrovia. International call for a cease-fire went unheeded and mediation efforts ultimately proved

(iii) That parties should subscribe to free and fair election as the only way to restore peace and harmony in that country.

It is worthy of mention at this juncture that the Liberia crisis is a strong case that the military can perform duties that go beyond classical peacekeeping functions. We should be mindful of the fact that many of the conflict situations call for the ability to combine normal combat with non-military tasks of handling and assisting Organization in providing humanitarian relief and the much needed peace.

The ECOMOG experience has shown that the West-Africa sub-region has come of age because it was able to resolve the crisis in Liberia: It could also be said to be the first successful peace keeping in the world.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The main thrust of this research work centers on the interplay of force and diplomacy in the resolution of the Liberian conflict by ECOWAS cease-fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG). There was interplay of many variables during the Liberia civil war that lasted for upwards of seven years with the causalities estimated at about 150,000.

The composition and character of these forces, the timing of the operation, the reaction and character of some members states of ECOWAS, the reaction and co-operation or non-co-operation of the warring factions, the internationalization of the conflict, the interplay of force or diplomacy in the resolution of the crisis all were issues of disagreement and skepticism.

However, be it as it was ECOMOG or rather ECOWAS was able to restore peace and security to Liberia after about seven years in the fray amidst When the Liberia war began in 1989, it automatically engaged the attention of leaders and people across the West African sub-region. Given the magnitude of the tragedy, in which Liberia was engulfed, as well as the need for the sub-regional security and indeed for the pride and dignity of the black race, a broad consensus emerged within the sub-region that the situation needed an urgent solution. It is also on record that at the time of the war, the rest of the world though saddened by the scope of the tragedy was seemingly pre-occupied with the developments elsewhere. This state of affairs resulted in the inability of necessary world organizations to commit either human or material resources to salvage the rapidly deteriorating situations in Liberia. Hence the human carnage.

It was against this background that the ECOWAS decided to find an urgent solution that was capable of stopping the senseless carnage and restoring peace to Liberia. This was in response to the desperate pleas of the traumatized majority of Liberians. In August 1990, the authority of the Heads of states and Governments of ECOWAS initiated a mediation process, which eventually culminated in the formation and deployment of a sub-region peace-monitoring group, ECOMOG.3

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. To what extend did the security implication of the Liberian crisis to the West Africa sub-region informed the decision of the ECOWAS to intervene in the crisis?

2. To what extend did the support given to ECOMOG by the member states of ECOWAS enhance the process of bringing peace to Liberia?

3. To what extend did the colonial orientation on the force contributing state of ECOWAS affect the operation of the ECOMOG in Liberia?

4. To what extend did the support given by the neighboring Government to the rebel forces complicate the crisis in Liberia?

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to examine the peacekeeping operation on West Africa sub-region using ECOMOG intervention in Liberia crisis as a case study. The specific objectives are as follows:

(1) To determine the extent to which the inability of most members to fulfill their financial obligations constitute a major constraint to

ECOMOG

(2) To evaluate ECOMOG crisis management capability as a peacekeeping force in West Africa sub-region.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The research work is of immense significance because it borders on the total restoration of peace in a state in the West African sub-region. The studies will look at the vast array of conflict management techniques in West Africa. Furthermore, the study will be invaluable to African leaders, as it will enable them to handle crises at the early stages before it degenerates into a civil war.

Those in the academia, particularly, researchers in the area of conflicts and conflict resolution will find this work as an indispensable reference point for future researches as it will richly add to existing literature on peacekeeping and international security.

Finally, the economic community of west Africa States (ECOWAS) will find this study exceedingly useful because it will enable them to properly evaluate the peacekeeping efforts as effective instruments of international politics.

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

Cosar, L.A. (1956) conceptualizes conflict as a struggle over values and claims to scarce resources, status and power in which the aims of the Opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals.4 From this; it is obvious that conflict involves the parties in question striving to out do one another. Doherty, J. E. et al (1981) sees conflict as a condition in which one identifiable group of human beings whether tribal, ethnic, cultural, religious, socio-economic and political is engaged in conscious opposition to one or more identifiable human groups because these group are pursuing what
appears to be incompatible goals.5 The position by Doherty et al is not different from that of Cosar except for semantics.

March and Simon (1958) on their part utilized the decision making paradigm, they posit that conflict to a break down in the standard mechanism of decision making so that an individual or group experiences difficulty in selecting an action alternative.6 This implies that for interest, that the individual is aware of Katy and Kham (1966) visualized conflict from the perspective of distinction between competition and conflict. To them, competition just like conflict, involves two or more sub-systems (individual or social) engaged in activities that in some, precludes the successful completion of the other. According to them, in competition you do not need direct interaction, but in conflict you do because there is a struggle for resources.7 Egorerua (1996) on his part, highlighted the issue of pay, social distance, ethnic factors as contributory to conflict situations. He avers that the greater the amount of social distance, the greater the amount of conflict.8 The analysis by Egorerua is an implicit or tacit reality.

Okube (1989) was quick to suggest causes of conflict as misunderstanding, personality clashes, values and goal differences, sub-standard performance differences over method, responsibility issues, frustration and non- compliance with rules and policies.9

According to Mitchel, C.R., (1981) conflict management is a new terminology of what used to be called the pacific settlement of dispute before World War II. But that today, it has become broader in scope and it makes use of much wider range of instrument of settlement and that many of these instruments are inter-governmental. He went on to state clearly that whereas the moribund method of settling disputes (pacific settlement) entails forceful means in totality but modern conflict management emphases peaceful procedure in the settlement of disputes.10

Northege, (1976) intimates that conflict management is a collection of proposed techniques ranging from reduction of psychological abnormalities so as to release and eliminate tension inherent in them. 11 This is the game approach to settling conflicts although it is seldom given attention, but it is an effective mechanism to resolve crisis of various forms. Ikles, F.C. (1964) argues that conflict management can be achieved through negotiation, consultation and mediation. He explained that negotiation is a process in which conflict proposals are put forth ostensibly for the purpose reaching agreement on the realization of a common interest where conflicting interest are present.12

Ray Ofoegbu (1980) is of the conception that conflict relationships in the international system receive more attention, comment and analysis than either cooperative or competitive relationship.13 He avers that conflict occurs when a serious disagreement, threat, use of violence or threats of the use of violence.

In spite of the nature of conflict, Ofoegbu considers it as a normal and almost inevitable phenomenon at all levels of human society because as he puts it, occasions and issue of conflict always exit which could be activated when an actor seeks a major re-distribution of values while others stay aloof.14 Hence there will always be those seeking to change the status quo and hoping to maintain it.

Koffi Annan (1995) is of the contention that classical peace would be a neat solution to conflict but if one should restrict himself to that, then one would

be excluding the main new sources of threats.16 Koffi Annan is simply emphasizing peacekeeping but sees classical peace keeping as a way out, once the crisis has taken place.

According to John Dalland el al (1960) who propounded the theory of “Frustration and Aggression” is that the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always pre-supposes the existence of frustration and contrariwise, that the existence of frustration leads to some form of aggression. 17

Fierabends and Nesvold (160) made their own contribution in the literature of frustration and aggression. They argue that frustration, collectively experienced by the members of a particular society and which is caused by the political system in which they live, induces the tendency to resort to political aggression. They further posit that collective frustration, begins mainly from an unsatisfactory political system, which can not guarantee the achievement and sustenance of set goals in their political arrangement have fallen below expectation, they lose confidence, which leads to collective frustration, aggression tendencies. 18

Bandura, Albert and Walters, R.H. (163) argues that aggression is always a consequence of frustration. The theory according to them maintains that all aggressive action presupposes the existence of frustration, a person does not need to be frustrated in order to engage in aggressive actions. 19

Lawrence and Lorch (1967) believe that setting up departments to resolve conflicts between individuals or groups or necessary and this is because different department would be required to look at different activities in different ways.20 Sofar on his part opined that conflict may be resolved through humor. He went on to say that the target of the humor has implications for the degree to which it can help to resolve conflicts. According to him, if one of the parties involved makes itself an object of laughter that in itself tries to generate under standing from the other party. 21 Sofar is focusing on comic relief as a way of resolving conflicts but was not oblivious of the fact that one party needs to make itself an object of laughter so that understanding can ensure.

1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS

Many theories can be applied in explaining any conceivable social problem. But it is the task of the researcher to identify and raise the appropriate theory/theories that will help him to offer adequate explanation of the problem under investigation. The field of political science is replete with varied theories and paradigms, which try to relate our ideas to the observations we make in the interactions between or among actors in national and international systems. At the moment no paradigm had emerged as an explanatory tool for all phenomena. This utility of a particular tool of analysis is heavily dependent on the extent to which it reflects the reality of what it sets out to describe. For the purpose of this study; we shall adopt the Theory collective security.

According to Inis L. Claude Jnr. (1970) collectively security is guided by the fact that the fabric of human society has become so tightly woven that a breach anywhere, threatens disintegration every where, unchallenged aggression in one direction emboldens and helps to empower its perpetrators penetrate other direction.

Also the essential commitments of collective security system necessitate the willingness of nations to fight for the maintenance of the status quo, even though this involves injury to innocent people and the squealing of valid objectives to the moral legitimacy of legally established state of thing.

To this end, United Nations as well as some regional ones, have sought to develop an international order in which the society of each state is expected to come from combined effort of all.

In order words, collective security theory in essence involves the promise by sovereign states to join together by constitution of organization that under certain circumstance they will come to the aid of the state, which is threatened or actually attacked. Also collective security assumes that bringing to bear of overwhelming power against a state with the implication of inevitable defeat for the offender can prevent war.

Although collective security originated from the League of Nations, it was further extended to regional organization through article 52 (1) of UN charter.

Finally, ECOWAS protocol on non-aggression (1979) and Protocol to mutual Assistance (1982) collaborate UN article on the above, all in line with collective security theory. Thus, the study finds it convenient to align with and agree with the collective security theory as the framework of analysis.

According to Inis, L. Claude Jnr. (1970) collective security is a design for providing the certainty of collective action to frustrate aggression, for giving to the potential victim, the reassuring knowledge, and conveying to the potential law breaker, the deterring conviction that the resources of the community will be mobilized against any abuse of national power.

In other words, collective security system entails the willingness of nation to fight for the status quo. Judging by the working hypothesis, we are tentatively at alert on the fact that ECOWAS intervention through the setting up of a ceasefire monitoring group for Liberia.

Although there was no external aggression on the state of Liberia, peace and security was threatened not only in Liberia but also in the ECOWAS sub-region. The fear that point that it will extend to informed the intervention of crisis.